Our academic experts are ready and waiting to assist with any writing project you may have. Instead, an attempt is made to highlight areas of research that speak to the overall validity of GST, that point to important problems or issues in the specification of the theory, or that suggest new directions for the future development of the theory. Agnew (1992) developed GST, in part, in response to the criticisms leveled against classic strain theories. These traits are linked to failure in school, unstable work histories, association with criminal and delinquent peers, and ultimately a pattern of persistent offending. The summary measure of strain indexed such factors as stressful life events, life hassles, and fights with parents. Anger and depression are often are the results of failing to achieve goals, such as a student struggling to fit in with his peers or with the loss of a positively valued stimuli such as a friend or family member. Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Criminology and Criminal Justice. Likewise, the gender gap in offending may reflect gender differences in the experience of, and reaction to, strain, but unanticipated findings in this area of research suggest that the gendered pathways may be more complex than originally specified (De Coster & Zito, 2010). What are the five components of Robert Mertons strain theory? General strain theory (GST) states that strains increase the likelihood of crime, particularly strains that are high in magnitude, are seen as unjust, are associated with low social control, and create some pressure or incentive for criminal coping. 9 Why was the strain theory important in the 1940s? Earlier versions of strain theory have been criticized for focusing on a narrow range of possible strains, for their inability to explain why only some strained individuals resort to crime or delinquency, and for limited empirical support. Strain theory has received several criticisms, such as: Strain theory best applies only to the lower class as they struggle with limited resources to obtain their goals. As described earlier, Agnew (2006) identifies other possible links between strain and offending. These mixed findings may reflect methodological challenges and the limitations of individual studies (see Mazerolle & Maahs, 2000). These negative emotions, in turn, are said to create pressures for corrective action, with crime or delinquency being one possible response. It is important to develop a more complete understanding of the relationship between strain and crime because such research may guide crime-control efforts. To make strain theory more applicable to juvenile delinquency, Cohen offered a revised version of the theory, which placed less emphasis on monetary success. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Unstable Cycloalkanes originate due to divergences from the general tetrahedral angles. In particular, criminal coping is said to be most likely when highly criminogenic strains are experienced by individuals who have a strong overall propensity to offend and who are in circumstances or situations in which the opportunities for legal coping are limited (Agnew, 2013). What is the assumption of strain theories? As predicted by GST, a number of studies indicate that the relationship between strain and offending is partly mediated by anger, and this is especially true of studies that focus on violent behavior (e.g., Aseltine, Gore, & Gordon, 2000; Agnew, 1985; Brezina, 1998; Broidy, 2001; Hay & Evans, 2006; Jang & Johnson, 2003; Mazerolle & Piquero, 1997, 1998; Mazerolle, Piquero, & Capowich, 2003; Moon et al., 2009). Emile Durkheim first popularized the term anomie, which essentially is defined normlessness, or the instability that occurs when norms and cultural values breakdown. To address this possible association, five hypotheses were tested to examine if different types of strain and stress exposure influence delinquent coping and if these relationships are conditioned by race Although the theory has been examined by many and enjoys empirical support, some limitations of previous studies need to be addr. They may end up in poor quality marriages and jobs that prove to be sources of chronic strain, and which further promote persistent high-rate offending (Agnew, 1997). In hindsight, these mixed results may not be surprising. Over the years of its development, strain theorists have attempted to broaden the initial scope of this perspective. For example, young people in poor inner-city communities experience high levels of family disruption, abuse and neglect, exposure to community violence, school problems, persistent poverty, unemployment, under-employment, and struggle to achieve goals related to money and status (Brezina & Agnew, 2013). To place these limitations into context one needs only draw on the literature documenting the characteristics of a "good" or "effective" theory. A precursor to GST was published by Agnew (1985) under the title, A Revised Strain Theory of Delinquency, in which strain was conceptualized as the blockage of pain-avoidance behavior. At least some of the strains listed in the preceding paragraph have been the focus of other criminological theories because they are thought to be associated with low social control (e.g., negative school experiences) or the social learning of crime (e.g., exposure to abuse or harsh physical punishment). The initial statement of GST (Agnew, 1992), which constituted a more fully developed version of the revised theory, was published several years later under the title, Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Delinquency. This initial statement was followed by several revisions and extensions of GST, including articles that specified gender differences in response to strain (Broidy & Agnew, 1997), the macro-level implications of GST (Agnew, 1999), the types of strain that are most relevant to crime (Agnew, 2001), and that further specified the conditions under which strain will have a greater or lesser effect on crime (Agnew, 2013). And initial research suggests that the application of GST to other areas of scholarly inquiry is likely to be fruitful, including, for example, research on racial/ethnic differences in crime (Brezina & Agnew, 2013; Kaufman, Rebellon, Thaxton, & Agnew, 2008) and terrorism (Agnew, 2010). By the 1970s, however, strain theory began to fall out of favor. Further, individuals who possess this trait are more likely than others to respond to strain with depression and substance use. These factors are said to constrain females, limiting their ability to engage in crime. Also, while early tests of GST typically examined the relationship between strain and general delinquency, the theory has since been applied to a variety of specific deviant behaviors. Further, the experience of anger tends to reduce ones tolerance for injury or insult, lowers inhibitions, energizes the individual to action, and creates desires for retaliation and revenge (Agnew, 1992). As stated earlier, the strains that are said to be most relevant to crime and delinquency tend to be those seen as unjust and high in magnitude (severe, frequent, of a chronic nature, and of central importance to the individual). Strain theory. Highlighting the subjective evaluation of fairness, Rebellon and colleagues (2012) observe that the perceived injustice of social relations is a potent predictor of delinquency (see also Scheuerman, 2013). Second, neighborhood-level strain exerted a significant effect on violence in communities characterized by a low level of social support. In addition, GST predicts that individuals who possess this trait will tend to provoke negative reactions from others, leading to elevated levels of strain. The first major type of strain involves the inability of individuals to achieve their goals, or goal blockage. Although classic strain theories also focused on goal blockage, they tended to focus on a single type of goal blockage; namely, a disjunction between aspirations and expectations. These and other issues provide opportunities for further theoretical development and are likely to stimulate additional research on GST. Following the initial statement of GST (Agnew, 1992), Agnew and White (1992) examined the effects of various strains on delinquency, based on a large sample of adolescents. Although crime and delinquency may occur in response to other negative emotions, anger is somewhat unique in that it tends to occur when strain is blamed on others. The theory recognizes that strain does not automatically lead to offending behavior and that such behavior is only one possible response to strain. Downloadable (with restrictions)! Although the theory appears to be logical and fits the criteria for being a good theory by what was learned in CRMJ 301, I have become a skeptic of the theory. Clearly, additional research on this issue is needed. Other studies, however, fail to observe the predicted conditioning effects (e.g., Hoffmann & Miller, 1998; Mazerolle & Piquero, 1997; for an overview, see, Agnew, 2006). According to the authors of this study, the differential impact of emotions across gender likely reflects cultural norms regarding the proper display of emotions. An additional level of complexity has been introduced by studies that distinguish between situation-based emotions and trait-based emotions. Agnew (1992:51) describes multiple types of strain that fall under the category of failing to achieve positively valued goals. For example, females are subject to higher levels of parental supervision, have higher levels of commitment to family and school, and are less likely to associate with delinquent peers. Males and females appear to react differently to strain or to the emotional consequences of strain. This anger and frustration is thought to be an important source of deviant motivation and is said to be a function of severe and persistent strains. Limitations to the large strain theory. This test is important because it assessed the possibility of a reciprocal relationship between strain and delinquency. Females still get angry but may also have a high propensity to experience the emotions of depression and anxiety simultaneously. These chronic, high-rate offenders typically exhibit highly aggressive behavior as young children, engage in high levels of delinquency during adolescence, and persist in serious offending as they grow older (Moffitt, 1993). For example, their ties to parents and teachers may weaken as a result of disputes regarding curfews, dress, homework, and privileges. The third path, ritualism, describes a person that will reject the culture goals of society, but use its institutions as an avenue for advancement. The trait of aggressiveness may result, in part, from chronic strains experienced in childhood, such as harsh or erratic parental discipline. Foundation for a general strain theory of delinquency and crime. What are the limitations of Mertons strain theory? Consequently, tests of GST that fail to distinguish between situation- and trait-based emotions could be problematic. Several findings from this study are noteworthy. Evidence indicates that males are more likely than females to experience certain strains conducive to crime, such as violent victimization, and that this difference partly explains gender differences in offending (e.g., Hay, 2003). It is beyond the scope of this article to consider every relevant study. In his General Strain Theory, Agnew (2013) suggests that individuals engage in rule-breaking behaviors when they (1) dislike their unjust and involuntary conditions, (2) develop negative. Many previous studies rely heavily on samples from Western countries, mostly the United States; thus, possible cultural influences are ignored. It has been suggested that, in response to strain, females are more likely to blame themselves or worry about possible harm to interpersonal relationships. General Strain theory in my opinion is parsimonious in its general explanation of why strain causes crime, but latent variables such as gender, age, race, neighborhood, and other factors make it complicated when it boils down to experimental testing. Further, certain data indicate that adolescents may resort to delinquency because it allows them to alleviate the negative emotional consequences of strain, at least in the short run (Brezina, 1996, 2000; Novacek, Raskin, & Hogan, 1991). At the same time, certain strainsespecially chronic strains experienced in early childhoodmay promote the trait of aggressiveness, leading individuals to possess an angry and irritable temperament that transcends particular situations (Agnew, 1997). Initial tests of GST produced promising results, showing a relationship between various strains and delinquent behavior. Emile Durkheim developed the first modern strain theory of crime and deviance, but Mertons classic strain theory and its offshoots came to dominate criminology during the middle part of the 20th century. Second, certain data suggest that the response to strain is gendered, with males being more likely to cope with strain in a criminal or delinquent manner. Agnew R. (2010). Since its inception, the theory has received a considerable amount of attention from researchers, has enjoyed a fair amount of empirical support, and has been credited with helping to revitalize the strain theory tradition. Agnew's Theory state that "strains are shaped by various factors, including the nature, intensity, and duration of the strain, the emotions that the strain produces in the individual, the collection of coping mechanisms at an individual's disposal (Broidy 2001:10)." If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help! In addition, they observe that the combined effects of anger and depression have criminogenic consequences but in ways not predicted by GST. Certain strains that fall into this categorysuch as racial discriminationhave been neglected by other theories. To explain persistent offending, some criminologists highlight the role of stable personality traits, such as low intelligence, impulsivity, or hyperactivity (Moffitt, 1993). How does the strain theory explain crime? Can GST explain why some communities (or other macro-level social units) have high rates of problem behavior? GST recognizes that the experience of goal blockage can also result from the failure to achieve expected outcomes (e.g., the failure to receive an expected income) as well as the failure to achieve fair and just outcomes (e.g., the failure to receive a deserved income). GST has been partly successful in overcoming these limitations. In contrast, Cohen (1955) observed that most juvenile offending is non-utilitarian in nature. When individuals accept the goal of monetary success but lack the legal means to attain it, they may lose faith in the value of hard work or playing by the rules [see Messner & Rosenfeld, 1994].) A study by Brezina (2010) highlights the fact that strain may have both emotional and cognitive consequences of a criminogenic nature (see also Konty, 2005). The theory explains that it is the social structures that influence a person to commit a crime. Results indicate that Agnew's theory provides a useful theoretical model for . Certain data indicate that the subjective experience of strain is an important consideration in understanding the relationship between strain and offending, but studies in this area have produced mixed results. Weaknesses One weakness of the strain theory is that it does only focus on the middle and lower classes of society. idea and it is not surprising that strain theory has had a major impact on delinquency research and public policy (Liska,b). These alternative links, however, have received less attention. Until then I believe that General Strain Theory is incomplete but if incorporated with other theories it can be helpful in explaining some delinquency. Other research, however, does not find the distinction between objective and subjective measures of strain to be consequential (Lin & Mieczkowski, 2011). This fact complicates the testing of GST because not all strains are created equal. The present study drew on Agnew's General Strain Theory (GST) to examine the relationship between strain, race, and delinquent behavior. Mertons theory focuses on the individual but some crime is a collective action. They generally have less control over their lives, having difficulty removing themselves from adverse environments, and have fewer opportunities for legal coping, given poor schools and limited job opportunities. 8 What are the strengths and weaknesses of Mertons strain theory? Lets say a sales worker who thought they deserved a promotion due to good sales performance gets demoted while someone with less credentials get promoted. Here you can choose which regional hub you wish to view, providing you with the most relevant information we have for your specific region. Based on a national sample of adolescents, Paternoster and Mazerolle (1994) find that the effect of strain on delinquency is partly mediated by social control and association with delinquent peers. Agnew (1992): General Strain Theory. This type of access increases the likelihood that such youth will specialize in money-oriented crimes as opposed to drug use or violence. The evidence in this area suggests that, on average, males and females experience the same overall level of strain. Some empirical evidence regarding general strain theory shows a strong correlate between negative emotions (anger) caused by strain and criminal activity. In order for a person like me, who is eternally critical, to become an advocate of a theory like such, I would like to see more comprehensive studies done. Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. Removal of valued stimuli. GST argues that strain occurs when others (1) prevent or threaten to prevent you from achieving positively valued goals, (2) remove or threaten to remove positively valued stimuli that you possess, or (3) present or threaten to present you with . According the GST, the trait of aggressiveness helps to fuel persistent antisocial behavior for at least three reasons. Examples of interventions that may have potential in this area include parenting and anger-management programs (for overviews, see Agnew, 1995b, 2006). GST, then, is distinguished from other criminological theories by the central role it assigns to negative emotions in the etiology of offending (Agnew, 1995a). A negative affect such as anger, is likely to lead an individual to take corrective steps to quell their anger. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UKEssays.com. For example, females are more likely than males to react to academic problems with anger and depression. In comparison to objective measures of strain, Froggio and Agnew (2007) find that subjective measures of strain are more strongly related to offending. Continuing Relevance. Using data from the 2008 Youth in Europe Survey, this study applies general strain theory of deviance to suicidal behaviors of Turkish adolescents. In this paper, the limitations and . In particular, large segments of the population internalize the American Dream ethos but lack the legal or legitimate means to attain monetary wealth, which contributes to goal blockage and frustration (see Agnew, 1987). The theory states that society puts pressure on individuals to achieve socially accepted goals (such as the American dream), though they lack the means.This leads to strain which may lead individuals to commit crimes, like selling drugs or becoming involved in prostitution as a means to . They are (1) strain as the disjunction between expectations and actual achievements; not achieving these goals is likely to cause anger, dissatisfaction, and disappointment, this cause of strain connects back to previous strain theories, such as Mertons (Agnew 1992:51). A study by Ganem (2010) highlights the potential complexity of the linkage between strain and offending, indicating that different types of strain may produce different types of negative emotions. They examine various individual strains and conclude that some strains affect males and females differently (see also Hay, 2003; Jang, 2007). Merton noted that the deviant response to strain was one of five responses he observed in society. As a result of their difficult temperament, aggressive individuals have difficulty maintaining stable relationships and employment. Limited evidence indicates that GST has some potential to explain continuity and change in offending behavior. Also found in this study was that females were much less likely to employ illegitimate coping strategies than males, leading Broidy to suggest that future studies of general strain theory should study the effect that gender has on assumptions described in general strain theory. In particular, rates of poverty and male joblessness predicted delinquent behavior in urban communities. We've received widespread press coverage since 2003, Your UKEssays purchase is secure and we're rated 4.4/5 on reviews.co.uk. Numerous additional tests of GST have produced similar results, indicating a relationship between various strains and offending behavior (for an overview, see Agnew 2006). Overall, empirical tests of GST are generally supportive of the theorys core propositions. [7] Agnew's three categories of strain [ edit] Here you can choose which regional hub you wish to view, providing you with the most relevant information we have for your specific region. Although some criminologists argue that these tests were flawed (see Agnew, Cullen, Burton, Evans, & Dunaway, 1996), such research diminished the influence of strain theory. Often times anger leads an individual to seek revenge and is also a strong motivator for action. General Strain Theory by definition is a logically sound theory, as it is not tautological, and can clearly be falsified. However, research on the conditioning effects of these factors has produced mixed results. In longitudinal analyses, a summary measure of strain predicted future delinquency, even after controlling for measures of social control, delinquent peer associations, and prior delinquent behavior. Moreover, in urban communities with high rates of male joblessness, the effect of individual-level stress on delinquency was magnified. Strains that meet these conditions include parental rejection and abuse, harsh or excessive parental discipline, negative experiences in school (e.g., failing grades or negative relations with teachers), being the victim of bullying or other peer abuse, criminal victimization, marital problems (e.g., verbal or physical abuse), persistent unemployment or under-employment; racial discrimination, homelessness, residence in economically deprived neighborhoods, and the inability to satisfy strong desires for money, excitement, and masculine status. General strain theory (GST) provides a unique explanation of crime and delinquency. Further, during the period of adolescence, young people experience a number of biological and social changes that are believed to reduce their levels of social control (Agnew & Brezina, 2015). GST was designed primarily to explain why individuals differ in their levels of crime and delinquency. Although GST highlights the role of negative effect, the experience of strain is thought to have other consequences of a criminogenic nature. This particular configuration of culture (the culturally prescribed goal of monetary wealth) and social structure (inequality of opportunity) is said to generate strain. Second, given their difficult temperament, aggressive individuals often provoke negative reactions from others. However, these predictions were not supported. Only a handful of studies have tested the macro-level implications of GST, with mixed results. Similar findings are reported by Jang and Song (2015) and Ousey, Wilcox, and Schreck (2015). Broidy (2001) asserts that by testing the theory with most middle-class, white college age students, it ensures that the results of the test are not spurious.. GST represents a revision and extension of prior strain theories, including the classic strain theories of Merton (1938), Cohen (1955), and Cloward and Ohlin (1960). According to GST, however, the primary reason these strains are related to crime and delinquency is because they increase the likelihood that individuals will experience negative emotions, such as anger, resentment, anxiety, and depression. This paper tests Agnew's (1992) general strain theory (GST) of crime and delinquency. However, General Strain Theory fails to explain why some individuals who experience great amounts of strain fail to resort to illegitimate coping strategies. The main reason for delinquency in this case is to attempt to improve their outcome, such as lying on sales and fudging the books, or affect others outcome, such as writing slanderous rumors that get someone fired (Agnew 1992:54). Lin and Mieczkowski (2011) constructed a composite measure to index the overall standing of young people on various conditioning factors, including moral beliefs, delinquent peer associations, self-control, and self-esteem. Google Scholar. Summary. All strain theories acknowledge that only a minority of strained individuals turn to crime. In the face of strain that originates in families, schools, or neighborhoods, adolescents have fewer opportunities for legal coping. General strain theory regards strain as having three distinct sources: (1) blockage of desired goals, (2) withdrawal or loss of valued objects, and (3) introduction of negative stimuli. General strain theory (GST) (Agnew, 1992, 2001, 2006a) is an established criminological theory. Enter a Melbet promo code and get a generous bonus, An Insight into Coupons and a Secret Bonus, Organic Hacks to Tweak Audio Recording for Videos Production, Bring Back Life to Your Graphic Images- Used Best Graphic Design Software, New Google Update and Future of Interstitial Ads. There are hundreds of coping strategies; individuals often employ several strategies, contemporaneously and over time; the strategies they employ often vary, depending on the stressors they experience and other factors. Goal blockage may include the inability to achieve other valued goals, such as respect and masculine status (e.g., the expectation that one be treated like a man), autonomy (e.g., the desire to achieve a certain amount of personal independence), and the desire for excitement. 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